In-Class: Grammar Guide

Grammar Guide

10/02/2019

• Sentences/ Complete Sentences/ Independent Clauses
  • An independent clause is a sentence that can stand on its own and make sense
  • A dependent clause is a fragment. Cannot stand on its own and make no sense
  • How to create a sentence: Subject->verb->complete thought
  • 1. Fixing sentence fragments
    • May be missing subject
    • May be missing verb
    • Subordinate Conjunctions:
      • After, although, as, as if, as though, because, before, except, if, since, though, unless, until, when, whereas
    • Relative Pronouns:
      • That, what, whatever, which, who, whoever, whom, whose
    • Example:
      • Fragment
        • Although he wanted to go to the meeting
        • Whoever goes to the meeting
      • Complete sentences:
        • Although he wanted to go to the meeting, his doctor advised him to stay home.
        • Whoever goes to the meeting should bring back handouts for the rest of the group
  • 2.Fixing Run-On sentences
    • A sentence that combines two independent clause w/o punctuations
    • Fused sentence
    • Comma splice
      • Instead of comma insert a period after first independent clause
      • Can put semi-colon in between independent clauses
      • If you keep comma add conjunction
        • F- “For”
        • A- “And”
        • N- “Nor”
        • B- “But”
        • O- “Or”
        • Y- “Yet”
        • S- “So”
• Capitalization:
  • Capitalize the first word
    • The first word of a sentence
    • The first word in the greeting and closing of letters and emails. (Dear, so and so, Yours truly)
    • The first and land word and important words in titles of literary or art works (books, songs, short stories, poems, articles, movie titles, magazines, ect.)
      • Conjunctions, articles, and prepositions with less than five letters are not capitalized unless they are first or last words.
        • Near, in, at, out, for, on, by, with
    • The first word of a direct quotation (“We are going home,” said Dad)
    • Capitalize names, initials, and titles of people
      • The pronoun “I”
      • The names and nicknames of people
      • Family names when used with or in place of the person’s name unless it is preceded by a possessive nun or pronoun (Aunt Sarah, Mom, but not my mother)
      • Titles or degrees used with, or in place of, people’s names, (Ms., Dr. Smith, Captain)
• Punctuation:
  • End Marks:
    • Use a (.) for declarative sentences
    • Use a (?) for interrogative sentences
    • Use a (!) for exclamatory sentences or interjections
    • Use a (.) or (!) for imperative sentences
  • Commas to Make Meaning Clear
    • Use commas to separate words or phrases in a series (We bought tequila, margarita mix, and ice.)
    • Use commas to separate introductory words such as yes, well, oh, no from the rest of the sentence. (Oh, I didn’t know that.)
    • Use commas to separate nouns of direct address from the rest of the sentence (Mom, do I have to go to school?)
    • Use comma to set off appositives (Sue, the girl next door, like to draw)
      • DO NOT use commas to set off appositives that are identifying a person or thing by answering the question, which one? (My brother Tim is riding in the horse show.)
    • Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions that provide additional information that can be easily removed with out changing the meaning of the sentence.
    • Use a comma to set off two or more introductory prepositional phrases (prepositions-often give us more information about time, place, and movement: in, before, after, at, down, across, inside, out, outside, for, by, on, between, behind, under, around, against, near, though, throughout), when the prepositional phrase is very long (four words or more), or when a comma is needed to make the meaning clear. (In the late fall of 1991, Mr. Jordan was elected mayor. After her incredibly complicated and exhaustingly emotional day, the grieving woman cried herself to sleep.  On Friday, Freddy, Frank, and Frodo went to the movies.)
    • Use a comma after an introductory participle and an introductory participle phrase (phrase that give more information about a noun) or a nonessential participle phrase or nonessential clauses.  (Plagued by deficits, many cites need state aid. Roy Pearce, standing by the door, is first in our class.)
    • Use a comma when separating two or more adjectives before a noun that are not connected by a conjunction. If the sentence reads smoothly when placing the word and between the two adjectives, use a comma. If it doesn’t, don’t use the comma. (We followed the steep, narrow road to their mountain cabin.)
    • Use a comma or set of commas to set off too in a sentence when too means also. (Air pollution, too, causes problems.)
  • Commas in Sentence Structures:
    • Use a comma before a coordinate conjunction when writing a compound sentence. The coordinate conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.  (The alien flew around my head, but I ignored it.)
    • Use a comma when writing a complex sentence in which the subordinate clause precedes the independent clause. Subordinate clauses will begin with subordinate conjunctions such as: after, although, as, as soon as, because, before, even though, except, if, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, when, where, while, or until.  (As soon as it stops raining, we will leave for the beach. We will leave for the beach as soon as it stops raining.)
  • Semi-colons:
    • Use semicolons to separate independent clauses that are brief and closely related.  This works best with cause and effect information.  (Kristi’s skating routine is the best; she won six gold medals. It rained all day; our picnic was cancelled.)
    • Use semicolons when writing compound sentences using a conjunctive adverb or transitional words or phrases. Some of the conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly, still, therefore, thus.   Common transitional words include as a result, for example, in addition, in fact, in other words, on the other hand. (I have not had much time to devote to my studies; nevertheless, I take a major test on Tuesday. I have been spending all of my free time watching videos; as a result, I have not read my novel.)
    • Use semicolons instead of commas between items in a series if the items themselves contain commas. (Next week the President will visit Norfolk, Virginia; Cincinnati, Ohio, and San Antonio, Texas.)
  • Apostrophes:
    • Form a contraction by using an apostrophe in place of the letter or letters than have been omitted. (I’ll = I will, he’s = he is, isn’t = is not, wasn’t = was not)
    • Form the possessive of singular and plural nouns by using an apostrophe. (boy’s book, boys’ books, children’s toys)
    • Form the plural of letters, symbols, numbers, and signs with apostrophe plus s (’s).  (9’s, B’s, 7’s, #’s)
  • Italics:
    • Use italics for the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, musical compilations, works of art, ships, television shows.
  • Quotations:
    • Use quotation marks to set of the titles of songs, short stories, poems, articles, essays, short plays, television episodes, movie scenes, and book chapters.
    • Quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of the speaker’s words to separate what is being said from the rest of the sentences.  Since the quotation tells what is being said, it will always have quotation marks around it.
    • Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.
    • Use a period at the end of explanatory words that come at the end of a sentence.
    • Use a comma to separate a direct quotation from the explanatory words.  If the introduction to the quote is an independent clause, use a colon.  Do not use a comma if the quote is made a part of the sentence itself.
    • Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks, and colons and semicolons go outside.
• Commonly Confused Words
  • Affect/Effect
    • Affect- to influence
      • Ex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of work
    • Effect- (noun) result; (verb) to accomplish
      • Ex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
  • Precede/ Proceed
    • Precede- to come before
      • Ex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers
    • Proceed- to go forward
      • “You may proceed.” said the voice
  • Lose/ Loose
    • Lose- (verb) to misplace or not win
      • Ex: If we lose this game we won’t get pizza.
    • Loose- (adjective) to not be tight; (verb) (rarely used) to release
      • Ex: The bolt was so loose on the bike that it came off.